In This Issue

Acidulated soybean soapstock improves performance of broilers on vegetarian diets

Shrimp perform well on soy protein

Soy protein concentrate use in aqua feeds forecast to grow rapidly

Soybean meal and soybean oil in sea bream diets

Soybean oil and fish oil compared in Atlantic cod diets

Solae and Monsanto to cooperate on soybean-derived omega-3 fatty acids

Thermo-stable coating for phytase

Biofuel production creates rapeseed meal and glycerin headache in France

Angst and euphoria over biofuels impact on feed prices

USDA forecasts record world soybean production

ACIDULATED SOYBEAN SOAPSTOCK IMPROVES PERFORMANCE OF BROILERS ON VEGETARIAN DIETS

Supplementing corn-soybean meal all-vegetable broiler diets with acidulated soybean soapstock enables similar performance compared to feeds containing poultry by-products, according to researchers at Brazil’s Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul 1.

A study was conducted to compare live performance and digestive metabolism of broiler chickens fed all-vegetable diets compared to a regular diet including animal by-products. Three feeds were formulated and provided to broilers according to a three-phase feeding program: pre-starter from 1 to 10 days, starter from 11 to 21 days, and grower from 21 to 35 days. All feeds had corn and soybean meal as the major ingredients but two of them were all-vegetable diets having either degummed soybean oil (DSO) or acidulated soybean soapstock (ASS) as fat sources. The third diet included poultry by-product and poultry fat. A total of 360 day-old broiler chicks were allocated to 1m2 cages, 10 chicks in each, and 12 replicates per treatment. Live performance was similar between groups of birds receiving the different diets with the exception of weight gain, which was increased for birds fed the all-vegetable diet with ASS. Better weight gain and feed efficiency were observed in birds consuming the diet supplemented with ASS as compared to those fed DSO.

The authors point out that nutritionists and field personnel have been experiencing difficulties to maintain production efficiency since the requirement for the use of vegetarian feeds became a reality in Brazil. Problems are related to increased litter moisture, as well as higher frequency and intensity of feet dermatitis. In the present study, a water intake increase of 19% was observed in birds fed vegetable diets as compared to those fed the diet containing poultry by-product. This may be considered an advantage since increased water intake is beneficial during high environmental temperatures.

SHRIMP PERFORM WELL ON SOY PROTEIN

The increased cost of fishmeal and the need for the conservation of the natural fisheries is driving the replacement of fish meal by vegetable protein meals in aquaculture feeds, Dr Addison Lawrence, Professor at Texas A&M University told delegates at a recent World Aquaculture 2007 workshop in San Antonio, Texas. Fish meals are added to shrimp feeds since they are chemo-attractants, highly digestible and provide dietary requirements for HUFA, PUFA, minerals, energy, protein, and essential amino acids, but research has shown that:  (1) wheat is a better attractant than soybean, which in turn is a better attractant than corn; (2) shrimp feeds can contain up to 50% soybean meal and 10% cottonseed meal with no detrimental effect on growth and survival; and (3) the trypsin inhibitor present in soybean meal does not seem to affect shrimp growth and survival. 

With the increase in the cost of fish meal, least cost formulations select defatted, dehulled soybean meal (48% protein) and not lupin, canola, or pea meals as sources of protein and essential amino acids.  When the fish meal level in feed was reduced to 12%, the soybean meal levels increase to between 44 % and 50%.  This results in feed mill production problems which necessitate an increase in fish oil and binder which in turn increases the feed cost and lowers the nutrient quality of the feed.  For this reason, shrimp feeds need feed grade plant proteins such as soybean concentrates, corn gluten and wheat gluten, says Dr Lawrence. 

Research also suggests that the methionine, lysine, and arginine, the three most limiting essentially amino acids in shrimp feeds, are not as limiting as protein levels in least cost formulated feeds.  Digestibility data indicates that there is a significant variation in availability of nutrients for different fish meals from different sources.  Digestibility data also indicates that the availability of nutrients from soybean and wheat is greater than that from corn or grain distillers products.  In summary, Dr Lawrence believes that shrimp feeds need a cost-effective food grade plant protein source containing at least 60% protein with a digestibility value of over 85%. Soybean concentrates appear to be excellent candidates for this.

SOY PROTEIN CONCENTRATE USE IN AQUA FEEDS FORECAST TO GROW RAPIDLY

Speaking at Aquaculture 2007, held in San Antonio, Texas in February, Dr Willa Finley of commodity consultants LMC International, gave an upbeat message on plant protein demand in her presentation “Expanding Opportunities for Vegetable Proteins and Oils in Aquaculture Feeds”. Assuming an average annual growth rate of 8-10 percent, aquaculture production will need 20 million tonnes of protein by 2020, up from 7-8 million tonnes today. Omnivorous species will account for roughly 60 percent of total demand for soy proteins in aquafeeds, with China becoming the largest consumer. Carnivorous species and crustaceans will continue to be fed fishmeal principally but SPC and SBM will nevertheless meet 20 percent of their total protein needs by 2020, forecast Dr Finley.

Methionine, lysine and other amino acids, protected with appropriate delivery technology, will be needed to balance amino acid profiles. Phytase enzymes, together with betaïne, immune stimulants, probiotics and feed attractants will also be needed to support the high inclusion levels of vegetable proteins. Fish oil will be steadily replaced by vegetable oils and by 2020, Dr Finley predicts that fish oil will provide less than 25 percent of the 3.6 million tonnes of lipids that will be required for aquafeeds, but this amount will equal almost 90 percent of the global fishoil availability. Fish oil, therefore, will mainly be used to increase omega-3 levels in marine fish at the end of the grow-out period. Fishmeal consumption has already shifted to China, Norway and Chile, notes Dr Finley, and China’s growing demand will inexorably bid up fishmeal prices.

SOYBEAN MEAL AND SOYBEAN OIL IN SEA BREAM DIETS

The value of defatted soybean meal as a protein source for sea bream fingerlings (15.2 g on average) growing to market size (300–350 g) was evaluated by researchers at the University of Valencia² in Spain by feeding extruded diets (46% protein and 22 MJ kg) containing 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% soybean meal.

On day 87, the fish weight ranged between 66 and 81 grams. The specific growth rate (SGR) of sea bream fed 50 percent soybean meal was lower than that of fish fed 20% and 30% but the feed conversion ratio (FCR) was not significantly affected. At the end of the second phase on day 309, fish weight was between 303 and 349 grams, but SGR and FCR were similar for all diets. The final biometric parameters were not affected by the diets, although the levels of some free amino acids in the muscle were affected.

Sensory differences were detected by panelists in fish fed the 20% soybean meal diet, compared to those fed 50% soybean meal which had less marine flavour and were less juicy. The global growth results suggest that sea bream weighing less than 80 g can be successfully fed 30% soybean meal, and sea bream weighing more than 80 g can be fed up to 50% soybean meal until the fish reaches commercial weight, with no negative effects on growth or feed efficiency. Nevertheless, when sensory analysis and economic aspects are taken into account, the researchers suggest an optimal inclusion level of 20–22% soybean meal.

The same research team evaluated the effect of substituting fish oil with soybean oil in sea bream diets on growth and sensory characteristics and muscle fatty acid composition³. Duplicate groups of fish were hand fed with four iso-energetic and iso-nitrogenous diets (46% protein, 14% lipid and 22 MJ kg) in which 0%, 24%, 48% or 72% of the fish oil was replaced by soybean oil. Fish fed the 72% replacement diet reached a lower final weight (324 grams) than fish fed the 0%, 24% and 48% replacement diets (349, 343 and 338 grams respectively). Feed intake, protein efficiency ratio, body composition and economic profitability were not influenced by the amount of soybean oil in the diets, but muscle fatty acid composition differed with diets. Panelists observed significant sensory differences between fish fed the 0% diet and the 72% diet. The researchers suggest that in commercial sea bream production diets 48 % of the fish oil can be substituted by soybean oil.

SOYBEAN OIL AND FISH OIL COMPARED IN ATLANTIC COD DIETS

In a recent study with farmed Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), researchers Jana Pickova from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala and Turid Mørkøre from Akvaforsk found evidence that plant sterols might be causing changes in gonad development. The cod were fed commercial extruded dry feed where the oil added was either soybean oil or Peruvian anchovy oil. Otherwise the diets were identical. The growth and survival of the cod were not affected by the changes in diet but the cholesterol content in the liver was lower in the cod fed soy oil. Furthermore, the soy oil group displayed delayed maturation, expressed as the gonad : body weight ratio (GSI).  Early sexual maturation is a serious problem in cod aquaculture because accelerated gonad growth retards growth and deteriorates fillet quality. It is known that plant sterols can act as phyto-estrogens and inhibit maturation and affect steroid synthesis. The researchers suggest that the active compounds delaying gonad growth are the main plant sterols of soy oil, sitosterol and campesterol. It appears thus that in cod production the advantages of partially replacing fish oil with soy oil include effects on growth rate and quality of the final product.

In addition, this study showed that the composition of fatty acids in muscle and organs reflected that of the dietary oil (Table 1). Atlantic cod is a lean fish with only 1-2% lipids in the muscle. The lipids in cod muscle are mainly found in the cell membranes and not as lipid deposits like in salmon and herring. Nonetheless, the incorporation of linoleic acid (18:2n-6) into the muscle of cod fed soybean oil was doubled in comparison to cod fed the marine oil diet. Linoleic acid is normally very low in the marine fish oils used in aquaculture, while the content is especially high in soy oil (about 50%). The contribution of linoleic acid to the total n-6 PUFA was almost all the n-6 increase seen in Table 1. The ratio of n-3 to n-6 was altered significantly but can still be considered as beneficial in terms of recommendations for human dietary intake.  

The researchers say that more studies are needed to understand the impact of plant oil compounds on carnivorous fish metabolism. The bioactivity of these compounds can be both undesirable and desirable in this new metabolic environment with unknown metabolites as a result.

Table 1. Fatty acids in cod muscle total lipids (%)

PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids
SAFA: saturated fatty acids
MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids

SOLAE AND MONSANTO TO COOPERATE ON SOYBEAN-DERIVED OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS

The Solae Company and Monsanto have formed a partnership to develop and market omega-3 fatty acid products derived from soybeans. Consumer demand for omega-3 products is increasing rapidly as research continues to show that diets rich in omega-3s play an important role in maintaining health, including cardiovascular health. The omega-3 market worldwide is forecast to reach $7 billion by 2011. In Asia, for example, the omega-3 ingredients market was estimated to be worth $280 million in 2005 and is forecast to reach $600 million by 2012. This market is presently supplied by marine oils, followed by algae oils and flax oils.

The collaboration brings together research that Monsanto and The Solae Company, together with its majority owner, DuPont, have been conducting independently on soybeans containing high levels of omega-3s, as well as Solae's work on stabilizing oil for food applications. The omega-3 products will be marketed through Solae. "There is a need to develop new solutions for delivering omega-3 fatty acids in a wider variety of consumer products," says Tony Arnold, president and chief executive officer of The Solae Company. "Our goal is to accelerate the creation of a convenient, affordable and sustainable source of omega-3 ingredients."

Present consumption of omega-3s by humans is much lower than the recommendations of many health groups. For example, in the United States, consumption of omega-3s is only one-fifth of what the American Heart Association recommends. Market researchers forecast that sales of omega-3-containing foods will grow at 60 percent annually from 2002 to 2011, prompting concerns that demand could soon outstrip supply and threaten fish stocks, the primary source of omega-3. "Soybeans represent a renewable, land-based source of omega-3s," said Jerry Steiner, executive vice president of Monsanto. "We believe this collaboration will allow us to market a variety of sustainable omega- 3 ingredients."

Last year, Austevoll Seafood, a diversified Norwegian fisheries company with operations, including salmon farms, in Norway, Chile and Peru, acquired Epax AS, a leading producer of high-concentrate omega-3 oils. Epax utilizes a unique stripping technology that removes residues that may remain in fish oil. In 2006, Epax used 5,000 tons of fish oil to produce 1,500 tons of concentrated omega-3 oils. Due to the unstable nature of omega-3 fish oil, however, the product can give off a fishy taste and smell. For this reason, microencapsulation technology has been used to help food and beverage manufacturers to incorporate omega-3 into products such as fortified milk, tortillas, bakery products, eggs, bread, orange juices, dietary foods and infant formula.

Many studies are showing the positive health effects of including sufficient omega-3 fatty acids in the human diet. Omega-3 is shown to have preventive effects on several diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and hypertension, as well as for inflammatory reactions. Sufficient intake of omega-3 is also widely believed to have a positive effect on brain health, and studies indicate positive effects on Alzheimer and depression. For example, a recent study published in the British Journal of Psychiatry examines the link between omega-3 deficiency and depression, suicide and stress. Omega-3 is a crucial building block in brain tissue, and sufficient intake by pregnant women is important for the development of the fetus.

THERMOSTABLE COATING FOR PHYTASE

A significant amount of the phosphorus (P) in soybean meal is in the unavailable phytate form. The enzyme phytase – routinely added to monogastric diets releases this phytate-P but risks to be destroyed by high temperatures during pelleting, expansion or extrusion. Danisco is developing a “Thermo Protection Technology” to protect phytase from the adverse effects of high temperatures during feed conditioning and pelleting.  Danisco’s Dr Soren Dalsgaard, addressing the 2007 International Poultry Scientific Forum in Atlanta, Georgia, said that the new technology is able to provide protection from high processing temperatures, ensuring that both the enzyme’s efficacy and its beneficial effects on animal performance are maintained.

Trials at the Technological Institute at Kolding in Denmark to investigate the thermostability of Danisco’s new-generation phytase Phyzyme XP showed that it produced consistently good results. The company’s “Thermo Protection Technology” involves applying a coating to the phytase. The coated phytase was included in the feed prior to conditioning and pelleting at temperatures of 90°C or 95ºC. Compared to unprocessed mash feed, 99 percent of the phytase activity remained after conditioning and pelleting at 90°C while at 95°C, 96 percent of the phytase activity remained.

In a presentation on ‘The effect of a new coating on thermo-tolerance and bio-efficacy of a phytase product in broilers fed corn-soybean meal-based diets’, Dr Janet Remus, Technical Services Manager for Danisco Animal Nutrition, outlined the results of trials conducted by ADAS in the United Kingdom to determine whether coating the new-generation phytase to confer thermo-stability up to 95ºC had any detrimental effects on the efficacy of the phytase. Broilers were fed diets containing either the uncoated or coated phytase. Live weight gain, feed conversion ratio and tibia ash were measured. No significant differences were found between broilers fed the uncoated or the coated phytase, confirming that the coating allows phytase to be released effectively in the bird’s gut. 

BIOFUEL PRODUCTION CREATES RAPESEED MEAL AND GLYCERIN HEADACHE IN FRANCE

Like the rest of Europe, France is converting a substantial percent of its arable land to the production of biofuels. France’s acreage of non-food rapeseed and sunflower seed is forecast to increase from 370,000 ha in 2005 to 1.6 million by 2010 due to increased demand for biofuels and this is expected to cause an over-supply of rapeseed meal and glycerin. France’s rapeseed meal usage in feed increased from 14 percent of total meal consumption in 2003 to 25 percent in 2006, whereas soybean meal consumption decreased from 73 to 64 percent. Last year, most rapeseed meal was used in cattle feed (38 percent in dairy cattle and 23 percent in beef cattle), followed by pig feed (29 percent). Very little rapeseed meal was used in poultry feed (8 percent), which continues to prefer soybean meal (73 percent). Forecasts suggest that the French ruminant, pig and poultry sectors combined could absorb up to 3 million tonnes of rapeseed meal.

France is also the leading European producer of sunflower seed, with 1.3 to 1.5 million tonnes annually out of 4 million tonnes average EU production. In 2006, oleic sunflower seeds, which contain higher concentrations of oleic fatty acid than standard varieties, covered 50 percent of the total French sunflower seed acreage, with 86 percent dedicated to the food market and 14 percent dedicated to the non-food market. Non-food use of sunflower seed, for biofuels production, is also growing in France.

Every 10 tonnes of biodiesel produces 1 tonne of glycerin. In 2006, biodiesel production became the primary source of glycerin supply in the world, accounting for 41 percent of total production and this is expected to grow to 65 percent by 2010. According to Sofiproteol, the French oilseed producer’s organization, prices for bulk glycerin in Europe and the United States have declined from 1700 euros per tonne and 100 cents/lb, respectively, in 1995, to 450 euros per tonne and 30 cents/lb in 2006. Glycerin producers are now seeking to develop new markets, notably polyol substitution in products such as toothpaste and notably, animal feed, targeting the introduction of glycerin in dairy, pig and poultry diets.

ANGST AND EUPHORIA OVER BIOFUELS IMPACT ON FEED PRICES

Similarly, USDA predicts that the net return for the farmer from one acre of corn will rise this year from $125 to $334. Apart from grower subsidies under the current Farm Bill, which is due to be renegotiated this year, U.S. ethanol producers receive a subsidy of 50 cents per gallon. U.S. beef producers are far from happy about this development. In the past year alone, cattle feeders have seen a 92 percent increase in cash corn prices, from $1.91 per bushel in 2006 to $3.68 per bushel in January-February 2007. U.S. poultry industry representatives say that ethanol has doubled the price of corn and increased the cost of poultry feed by 40 percent. 

“Ethanol from corn and wheat are only the first stop on the road to alternative fuels but grain ethanol is probably not the best stop and there are other stops ahead, including cellulose from perennial grasses, like switch grass,” notes Dr. Larry Martin, economist and Director of Canada’s George Morris Centre for Agrifood think-tank. Martin says that among all the potential feed stocks for ethanol, “corn and wheat may be the least efficient at replacing oil. Also, corn and wheat appear to reduce carbon emissions the least.” Compared to Brazilian sugarcane, Martin says, corn and wheat are poor choices to make ethanol. Moreover, North American consumers are discovering that, compared to gasoline, it takes more ethanol to run their vehicles.

“On the one hand, you’ve got 150 ethanol plants and they’re going to be used for something,” says Martin, who points out that the application of cellulose fermentation technology is probably going to happen in the same regions that are currently growing corn and wheat. “What’s really interesting about the ethanol approach to subsidizing agriculture in the US is that it raises the price of grain for everybody. It’s good for grain farmers worldwide. In Argentina, it’s bringing new acreage into production.” However, Martin suggests that U.S. subsidies may one day favour perennial grasses.

USDA FORECASTS RECORD WORLD SOYBEAN PRODUCTION

Global oilseed production for 2006-07 is forecast at 399.1 million tonnes, according to USDA. Global production of soybeans, rapeseed, peanuts, and copra are expected to increase but this growth will be offset by a small reduction in sunflower seed production. Global soybean production in 2006-07 is projected by USDA to reach a record 229.4 million tonnes, with Brazilian production now forecast at a record 57 million tonnes. Growing conditions in Brazil have been exceptionally good this season, especially in the southern states, which were affected by drought during each of the past three seasons.

USDA is forecasting this year’s U.S. soybean planted area at 30.6 million hectares, with production expected to reach 86.8 million tonnes. Yield is forecast at 2.87 tonnes per hectare. U.S. soybean ending stocks for 2006-07 are projected at a record 16.2 million tonnes, up 33 percent from 2005-06.

Soybean rust pustules and spores were recently found on a single leaf retrieved from a bin of 2006 soybeans. Soybean rust has been detected on kudzu (a proliferous vine that grows all over the southern U.S.) in eight counties in Florida and in five counties in Georgia and Alabama. The disease was also detected on soybeans in one county in Texas. So far, however, there have been no reports of soybean rust surviving the winter in Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina. Scouting efforts have increased on kudzu and newly emerged soybeans.

1 Vieira SL, Viola ES, Berres J, Coneglian JLB, Freitas DM, Bortolini TCK. Water Intake and Digestive Metabolism of Broilers Fed All-Vegetable Diets Containing Acidulated Soybean Soapstock. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Avícola. Jul-Sep 2006/v.8/n.3/159-165.